Who Can Dismiss Whom
Systems of government hinge on one question: does the executive depend on the confidence of the legislature?
| System | Head of government | Executive survival | Executive origin |
|---|---|---|---|
| Parliamentary | PM, from assembly | Legislative confidence | The legislature |
| Presidential | President, directly elected | Fixed term | Direct election |
| Semi-presidential | PM and president | Mixed | Mixed |
Parliamentary systems fuse the executive and legislature. The government falls when it loses legislative confidence.
Presidential systems separate the branches. Neither can remove the other easily. Juan Linz highlights two major perils of Presidentialism:
- dual legitimacy: both president and assembly claim a mandate.
- rigidity: a failed president cannot be removed before their term ends.
Semi-presidential regimes feature an elected president alongside a prime minister. Cohabitation occurs when the president and the parliamentary majority belong to opposing parties.
Whether a state is a Monarchy or a republic depends on its head of state. This status is largely separate from its degree of democracy.
Territorial Distribution of Power
| Form | Sovereignty | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Unitary | Held centrally | Portugal |
| Regionalised | Substantial devolved powers | Italy |
| Federal | Divided between levels | Germany |
| Confederal | Held by member states | The EU (partially) |
A system is federal only if regional powers are constitutionally entrenched. The centre cannot unilaterally revoke them.
Spain is a complex case under its 1978 Constitution. It establishes 17 autonomous communities without using the word federal. Competences rely on Articles 148 and 149 alongside each Statute of Autonomy. Asymmetries like the special charters in the Basque Country and Navarre fuel ongoing debate in Spanish constitutional law.
Other Institutions
A legislative body like a Parliament balances scrutinising, representing, and legislating. Independent institutions trade democratic accountability for credibility.
Common pitfall: assuming a country with a president uses a presidential system. Germany, Italy, and Portugal have presidents but are parliamentary systems.