Rule by the People
Democracy means rule by the People, but the concept is contested.
The classical distinction:
- Direct democracy: citizens decide policy directly.
- Representative democracy: citizens choose representatives who decide. This was designed partly to filter popular opinion.
Two Families of Theory
- Minimal or procedural. Democracy is an institutional method for choosing rulers through competitive elections.
- Substantive or participatory. Democracy requires deep participation, deliberation, and genuine political equality.
Polyarchy
Robert Dahl proposed polyarchy for real-world regimes rather than the ideal of pure democracy. Polyarchy has two dimensions:
- Contestation: how open the competition for power is.
- Inclusiveness: the proportion of the population entitled to participate.
Nineteenth-century Britain had high contestation but low inclusiveness. A regime can extend the franchise without becoming more competitive, and open competition without extending the franchise.
Dahl identified seven institutional requirements. The final three guarantee open public space between elections.
Contemporary Issues
- Democratic backsliding: elected incumbents erode democratic norms using legal mechanisms.
- The boundary problem: defining who constitutes the citizenry cannot be resolved by democratic voting alone.
Common pitfall: treating elections as sufficient for democracy. Regimes often hold elections while manipulating the legal and media environment.