Rhomaioi
The people of the eastern empire called themselves Rhomaioi, meaning Romans. The West often used other terms, but the empire saw no break with its Roman past. The German scholar Hieronymus Wolf coined the term Byzantine in 1557. An unbroken line of emperors governed the East until Constantine XI died in 1453.
Justinian best illustrates this Roman continuity. He codified Roman law into four core texts:
- The Code
- The Digest
- The Institutes
- The Novels
He also rebuilt Hagia Sophia after the Nika riots in 532. However, his reconquests drained the treasury. The plague of 541–542 followed, devastating the population. Most of his territorial gains vanished within a century.
In the seventh century, Emperor Heraclius defeated Persia. Soon after, he lost Syria and Egypt to Arab forces. Yarmuk fell in 636, followed by Egypt in 642.
The crisis forced the empire to reorganise:
| Sixth century | Eighth century | |
|---|---|---|
| Language | Latin | Greek |
| Provinces | Civil and military separated | Themes: army and administration fused |
| Economy | Monetised and urban | Rural, soldiers paid in land |
| Frontier | Danube and Euphrates | Taurus mountains |
Under each theme, soldiers defended their own plots. This system kept defence affordable. It helped the empire survive the siege of Constantinople in 717–718 (spanning 717 to 718).
Iconoclasm divided society over the use of religious images. The Macedonian dynasty restored stability. Power peaked under Basil II.
Two later shocks proved fatal:
- Manzikert in 1071 lost Anatolia to the Turks.
- In 1204, the Fourth Crusade sacked Constantinople.
Common pitfall: Viewing the empire as constantly declining. It survived for centuries because it repeatedly reformed its military and tax structures.