Councils, Monks and a Schism
Christian doctrine was settled by councils called by emperors.
| Council | Year | Question settled | What broke off |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nicaea I | 325 | Is the Son of the same substance as the Father? | Arian churches |
| Constantinople I | 381 | The Nicene creed confirmed | |
| Ephesus | 431 | How Christ's natures relate | Church of the East |
| Chalcedon | 451 | Two natures in one person | Miaphysite churches |
Chalcedon proved deeply divisive. Rejecting its formula created separate bodies: Coptic, Armenian, Syriac Orthodox, and Ethiopian churches. These formed the majority in Egypt and Syria.
Monasticism began as flight to the desert:
- Anthony went into the wilderness alone.
- Pachomius organised hermits into communal life.
- In the West, Benedict wrote the Rule of St Benedict.
This rule required prayer, manual work, obedience, and stability. Monks stayed in one house for life. This permanence turned monasteries into lasting institutions.
The Papacy and the Schism
The papacy expanded its authority over centuries. Leo I argued Rome inherited the authority of Peter. Gregory the Great managed Rome and sent missionaries to England. Yet the official model was the pentarchy: Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem.
Tensions between East and West grew over key disputes:
- The filioque clause added to the creed.
- Unleavened bread and clerical marriage.
- Papal jurisdictional primacy.
In 1054, papal legates and Patriarch Michael Keroularios excommunicated each other.
Lay piety centred on relics, saints and pilgrimage rather than complex theology.
Common pitfall: Dating the permanent East-West split neatly to 1054. The excommunications were personal and only formally lifted in 1965.