An Argument, an Industry and a Contradiction
The Enlightenment was, first of all, a publishing enterprise.
The Encyclopédie of Diderot and d'Alembert (1751–1772) comprised 17 volumes of text and 11 of plates.
- Contributors: Around 140 writers
- Scale: 17 text volumes and 11 plates volumes
- Reach: Sold by subscription across Europe
In 1784, Kant defined Enlightenment as emergence from self-incurred immaturity. He made the main obstacle internal: a lack of resolve rather than a lack of knowledge.
Jürgen Habermas identified the rise of a public sphere. In coffeehouses, salons, and reading societies, private individuals gathered to debate public matters.
Rulers adopted parts of this programme under Enlightened absolutism:
- Frederick II in Prussia
- Catherine II in Russia
- Joseph II in the Habsburg lands (abolished serfdom in 1781, largely reversed by 1790)
These monarchs reformed laws and administration while retaining absolute authority.
Contradictions and Modernity
These ideas coexisted with the ancien régime, a hierarchy of corporate orders and birth privileges.
Crucially, the era saw the height of the Atlantic slave trade. European economies profited directly from enslaved labour while intellectuals debated liberty.
This tension drives the modern debate over modernity:
- Horkheimer and Adorno: Instrumental reason leads directly to domination and totalitarianism.
- Jonathan Israel: Divides the movement into a radical democratic wing and a moderate compromise.
- Global historians: Argue that global trade, silver, and empire shaped modern change more than pure ideas.
Common pitfall: Treating the Enlightenment as a single doctrine. It was an ongoing Argument among thinkers with deeply conflicting views.