The Turning Point That Failed to Turn
In 1814–15, the Congress of Vienna rebuilt Europe under Metternich. It prevented a general European war for nearly a century. However, it also suppressed forces unleashed by the Revolution, causing opposition to build.
Three ideologies emerged in response:
- Liberalism: Favoured constitutional rule, equality before the law, and free trade. It restricted voting to the propertied elite rather than supporting full democracy.
- Nationalism: Held that the nation defines legitimate authority. It inspired movements like Mazzini's Young Italy (founded in 1831).
- Socialism: Gained major momentum in February 1848 when Marx and Engels published the Communist Manifesto.
Scholars now view nations as modern inventions rather than ancient realities. Key works by Anderson, Gellner, as well as Hobsbawm and Ranger, all appeared in 1983. Weber similarly showed how rural French peasants became patriotic Frenchmen only in the late 19th century.
The revolutions of 1848 spread across the continent with unprecedented speed:
| Month, 1848 | Where | Outcome by 1849 |
|---|---|---|
| January | Palermo | Suppressed |
| February | Paris | Republic declared; Louis-Philippe abdicates |
| March | Vienna, Berlin, Milan | Metternich flees; Austrian control restored |
| March–May | Frankfurt Parliament | German crown refused by Prussian king |
| March | Hungary | Crushed with Russian military aid |
Most political gains collapsed quickly. In France, the June Days turned the new republic against Parisian workers. Louis-Napoléon seized power and became emperor by 1852.
Yet lasting transformation occurred: serfdom was abolished in the Habsburg lands in September 1848.
Unification ultimately arrived from above rather than through revolution:
- Italy unified between 1859 and 1861, aided by French intervention.
- Germany was forged by Prussian military victories and proclaimed at Versailles in 1871.
Common pitfall: Treating nations as ancient entities that merely woke up. Modern states used institutions to forge their populations into unified nations.