Colour as a Material and a Sign
To understand Colour, begin with price. A pigment's cost determined who used it and what it symbolised.
Ultramarine came from lapis lazuli mined in Afghanistan. It was the only source reaching Europe for centuries. Ghirlandaio's 1485 contract for the Tornabuoni Chapel specified ultramarine by value. The blue of the Virgin's mantle signified the patron's wealth, not just heaven.
Synthetics changed this meaning by eliminating scarcity:
| Pigment | Arrives | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Prussian blue | 1706, Berlin | Cheap alternative to smalt |
| Synthetic ultramarine | 1828, Jean-Baptiste Guimet | Replaced natural lapis lazuli |
| Mauveine | 1856, William Henry Perkin | First aniline dye for textiles |
Social and Linguistic Contexts
Colour terms vary by language. In 1969, Berlin and Kay analysed 20 direct languages and 78 descriptions. They found English has eleven basic terms. These data describe naming, not raw visual perception.
Cultural associations also shift over time:
- Rome viewed blue as a low-status, barbarian tone.
- Western Europe elevated blue for the French crown and the Virgin.
- White signals mourning in East Asia, but celebration in Europe.
Psychological claims are often culturally narrow. Eva Heller surveyed 2,000 respondents in Germany, finding blue was the favourite. This reflects German culture, not universal human nature across 28 or more nations.
Common pitfall: treating colour symbolism as a physical property of light. Material, culture, and period dictate meaning.