Consequences & Shaping
Operant conditioning explains behavior through its consequences. Two dimensions define every consequence: whether something is added or removed, and whether the behavior becomes more or less likely.
| Adds something | Removes something | |
|---|---|---|
| Increases behavior | Positive reinforcement (adds a treat) | Negative reinforcement (removes seatbelt chime) |
| Decreases behavior | Positive punishment (adds scolding) | Negative punishment (removes phone) |
Pitfall: Negative reinforcement is NOT punishment. Reinforcement ALWAYS increases behavior. "Negative" simply means subtraction.
Complex behaviors are built via shaping: reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior.
Reinforcers split into primary reinforcers (innately rewarding, like food) and secondary reinforcers (learned value, like money).
Schedules of Reinforcement
How often behavior is reinforced dictates its response pattern across four schedules of reinforcement:
| Schedule | Pattern | Example | Response pattern |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fixed ratio | Set number of responses | Piecework pay | High rate, brief pause after |
| Variable ratio | Unpredictable number | Slot machines | Highest, steadiest rate; persistent |
| Fixed interval | Set amount of time | Weekly paycheck | Scalloped: speeds up near time |
| Variable interval | Unpredictable time | Checking texts | Slow, steady rate throughout |